Under the structural condition of resource equality, it is likely that gender has no status value; therefore, gender is unimportant for the evaluation process. 50, 822839. The gender pay gap can refer to differences in mean or median annual earnings, weekly earnings, or hourly wage. Double standards for competence: theory and research. Webtrends in the US gender wage gap and on their sources (in a descriptive sense). A second version of this paper has been part of my dissertation (Sauer, 2014b) and is available online as a discussion paper (Sauer, 2014a). Conflict Theory on Gender Wage Inequality Essay | Cram The largest gap was measured in Baden-Wrttemberg at 28%. In 2021, female employees aged 25 to 54 earned $3.79 (11.1%) less per hour, on average, than their male counterparts. Assuming this evaluation process, the justice evaluation stated in Equations (1) and (2) contains three types of characteristics: categorical variables, abilities and inputs. doi: 10.1177/0049124106292367, England, P., Bearak, J., Budig, M. J., and Hodges, M. J. Gender pay gap 20062018, in WSI GenderDatenPortal. A recent snapshot. Full-time employees directly experience inequalities in their goal-oriented daily interactions at their workplaces. Past and future applications of Jasso's justice theory. 189, 46. doi: 10.2139/ssrn.1413792, Sauer, C., Auspurg, K., Hinz, T., Liebig, S., and Schupp, J. To link the justice evaluation process to the structural context, a closer examination of the referential structure of comparisons in justice judgments is in order. Sipe, S., Johnson, C. D., and Fisher, D. K. (2009). In the years 2008 and 2009, when the surveys of this study were conducted, the unadjusted gender pay gap of monthly median earnings in Germany was approximately 21% (see Table 5). How did we get here? Understanding international differences in the gender pay gap. The specification assumes comparisons as a central mechanism within justice evaluations. Social institutions change and shift over time, affecting other social institutions and society as a whole. Usually, the official statistics reporting the unadjusted gender pay gap use the arithmetic mean or the median of hourly or monthly wages of men and women. Internationally comparable measures of occupational status for the 1988 international standard classification of occupations. This high-status group preference is shared by both the advantaged and disadvantaged groups, and accordingly, both male and female observers assign higher earnings to male recipients. Table 6. If they rated the income as unjust, respondents judged in a second step whether the income was too high or too low. With respect to this feature, factorial surveys have an advantage over justice measures of individuals' own earnings, as gender can be modeled as uncorrelated with other recipient's characteristics, e.g., occupational status and gross earnings, which are correlated in the real world. Res. The third model in Table 6 provides the coefficients for population sample 2. Women's and Gender's Studies as an Academic Discipline - Student Specific Content Learning Outcomes, 3. Table 7. The gender wage gap 101: The basics - Economic Policy Institute As a result, this causes males Ivy League students to feel even more pressure to conform and apply to Wall Street. Methods Res. Soc. 11.3B: The Conflict Perspective - Social Sci LibreTexts Sociol. Observers (do not) produce a just gender pay gap with their ratings. Given the assumption that the process can be defined as a gender bias in the referential structure, it is likely that one will find gender gaps in just earnings in evaluators judgments who are themselves embedded in gender-unequal structures, while it is likely that people who experience less gender inequality do not have these biased structures. Auspurg, K., Hinz, T., Liebig, S., and Sauer, C. (2015). Finally, the effect of gross earnings is positive: the more a vignette person earns, the more often respondents rated this person as over-rewarded, holding other dimensions equal. According to the Institute for Womens Policy Research, from 2019 to 2020, the gender wage gap narrowed from 18.5% to 17.7%. How Expectations Organize Behavior, eds J. Berger and M. J. Zelditch (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass), 215261. 15 Articles, This article is part of the Research Topic, https://www.destatis.de/DE/Methoden/WISTA-Wirtschaft-und-Statistik/2017/02/verdienstunterschiede-022017.pdf%3F__blob%3DpublicationFile%26v%3D3, https://www.wsi.de/data/wsi-gdp-entgelt-2019-06-11-01.pdf, https://pub.uni-bielefeld.de/record/2691510, https://web.archive.org/web/20120203131554/http://www.statistik.rlp.de/wirtschaft/verdienste-und-arbeitskosten/einzelansicht/archive/2010/june/article/gender-pay-gapldquo-im-jahr-2009-verdienten-frauen-22-prozent-weniger-als-maumlnner/, https://www.statistik.rlp.de/fileadmin/dokumente/monatshefte/2010/Juni/06-2010-440.pdf, Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY), Faculty of Political and Social Sciences, Zeppelin University, Friedrichshafen, Germany. Rather, handful believe that the formative system reinforces real perpetuates social inequalities that arise of distinguishing in class, gender, race, and ethnicity. Moreover, the comparisons between different subpopulations are based on cross-sectional data. But what do they signify? In a subpopulation with resource inequality (equality) between men and women, it is likely that male and female observers will (not) attach a status value to the characteristic gender of the recipient. The university student survey (hereafter the student sample) was conducted during the summer term in 2008. Kevin J. Mitchell, Ph.D., "Sex on the Brain" published by Aeon Magazine, https://aeon.co/essays/the-gender-wars-will-end-only-with-a-synthesis-of-research, 10. The analysis sample was restricted to those respondents who were full-time employed because gender pay gaps were available only for full-time employees, so they directly experienced the difference in their daily interactions. 6. doi: 10.1146/annurev.soc.26.1.21. Women began to notice how much more men got paid for the same amount of work which went against Americas founding viewpoint that all men are created equal. These findings are in line with the results of earlier studies (e.g., Jasso and Rossi, 1977; Alves and Rossi, 1978; Jasso and Meyersson Milgrom, 2008; Gatskova, 2013). Res. The estimates of the regression models for the different respondent samples are presented in Table 6. Is Gender Socially Constructed? are available from the author. gender pay gap Acta Sociol. Soc. Am. doi: 10.2307/2695834, Jasso, G., and Wegener, B. According to conflict theory, society is defined by a struggle for dominance among social groups that compete for scarce resources. Therefore, this context variable is useful to compare how the gender of the recipient influences justice evaluations of observers living in different federal states. Moreover, student samples and general samples do not only differ by the structural conditions in which respondents are embedded. The theory of double standards focuses on these interactions between job-related characteristics, such as competence and performance, and gender (Foschi, 2000); empirical research by Jasso and Webster (1999) shows that these double standards exist in justice evaluations. I use data from one student sample and two random samples of the German population (the two population samples are independent of one another and differ in design and are therefore useful to demonstrate the robustness of the findings). DFG Research Center (SFB) 882 From Heterogeneities to Inequalities (Bielefeld University). Before a person can define their standpoint on a topic, he or she must first consider if the issues exist., Women have long been oppressed in society, and this oppression has translated into segregation in the workforce for a long time. Gender theory and theorizing universities as gendered organizations provides the theoretical framework of the study. Social structure and the paradox of the contented female worker: how occupational gender segregation biases justice perceptions of wages. The conflict theory comes from the work of Karl Marx where there are different kinds of groups competing for dominance. (2015)]. Why/What is Womens and Genders Studies?, MIT OpenCourseWare, https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/womens-and-gender-studies/wgs-101-introduction-to-womens-and-gender-studies-fall-2014/instructor-insights/, Miliann Kang, Donovan Lessard, and Laura Heston, Introduction to Women, Gender, Sexuality Studies, http://openbooks.library.umass.edu/introwgss/, 7. In the computer-assisted personal interviews, the interviewers gave the laptop to the respondents and sat opposite them to preclude having the opportunity to view the evaluations. J. Sociol. The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. Gender is a categorical difference between recipients. The difference is that in the previous study (Jasso and Webster, 1999), male and female students showed a tendency to favor female recipients. It would be not explainable enough for women to reject such help. Illogical cases are, e.g., medical doctors without a university degree. In 1963 women earned 59 cents for every dollar a man earned. The effect of the SIOPS has a significantly negative value, meaning that those vignette persons described by working in occupations with higher prestige scores were evaluated as more under-rewarded than those with lower scores (occupation status reward). Gender pay gap - Wikipedia Multiple linear regression of justice evaluations of vignettes on vignette dimensions and gender of respondent by sample. For example, only a small fraction of people evaluate themselves as being overpaid (Sauer and Valet, 2013). 46, 352360. 66, 125145. Statistische Monatshefte Rheinland-Pfalz 6, 440447. Gender pay gap Web79Conflict Theory Conflict theory looks at conflict and power. Res. Sociol. The contribution of this paper is to apply the theoretical explanations offered by Berger et al. The resource endowment (income and performance) was uncorrelated with gender, and it is therefore likely that gender has no attached status value in the referential structure. There exist large regional differences in gender pay gaps across federal states. This indicates that respondents reward seniority and potential work experience. Social Behavior. Its Elementary Forms. . This gap causes men to believe they are superior to women, it perpetuates the stereotype that men are better than women, it objectifies all women, and leads further to the discrimination of all people. The survey was conducted by a research institution with professional interviewers. Course Hero is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university. WebThe unadjusted gender pay gap is defined as the difference of the average gross earnings of men and women divided by the average gross earnings of men. Stata J. Berger, J., Zelditch, M., Anderson, B., and Cohen, B. SOEP Testerhebung 2008: Persnlichkeit, Gerechtigkeitsempfinden und Alltagsstimmung. Further details on the methodical setup of the factorial survey can be found in Sauer et al. If men are more likely to be resource-rich and women are more likely to be resource-poor, observers attach higher status to male recipients and assign higher earnings to the high-status group even though the recipients do not differ in other characteristics. 30, 219232. Questions surrounding distributive justice are part of the research program of the empirical sociological justice literature (Jasso et al., 2016; Liebig and Sauer, 2016) that has been developed over the last 50 years and now has a formalized core mapping the evaluation process. The actual rewards (gross earnings) are directly given, while the just gross earnings are a hypothetical value observers regard as just for given recipients. Attention is placed on class, race, and gender in this perspective because they are seen as the most important bases and long-term struggles in society., Whether we like it or not, history is repeating itself. Do highly paid, highly skilled women experience the largest motherhood penalty? doi: 10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60108-2, Adriaans, J, Sauer, C., and Wrohlich, K. (2020). Figure 2 shows the distributions of justice evaluations by dataset. Again, the rating pattern was similar for male and female respondents (2 = 0.52;p = 0.472). The effect of average gross earnings is significantly negative, meaning that respondents living in federal states with high average earnings evaluated the gross earnings described in the vignettes more often as unjustly low compared to those respondents living in federal states with lower average earnings. Just. The social sciences students are embedded in a structural context in which relevant resources are not (or less) correlated with gender, and therefore, gender is unlikely to become a status characteristic in their daily interactions. The respondents in the population samples were sampled in different regions in Germany with differing degrees of earnings inequality between men and women. The factorial survey as a method for measuring sensitive issues, in Improving Survey Methods: Lessons From Recent Research, eds U. Engel, B. Jann, P. Lynn, A. Scherpenzeel, and P. Sturgis (New York, NY: Routledge), 137149. Available online at: https://web.archive.org/web/20120203131554/http://www.statistik.rlp.de/wirtschaft/verdienste-und-arbeitskosten/einzelansicht/archive/2010/june/article/gender-pay-gapldquo-im-jahr-2009-verdienten-frauen-22-prozent-weniger-als-maumlnner/, Schomaker, C. (2010b). Moreover, all coefficients are similar in both samples, even though the rating task was different, which indicates stable results. Conflict theorists would investigate how the interests of dominant groups create gender norms and roles, as well as how these roles help to sustain the status quo and strengthen social hierarchies. ^In the computer-assisted personal interviews, additional information was collected about the interviewer, e.g., work experience and training attendance, and the interview situations in interviewer questionnaires after each interview. Methods Res. The empirical analyses are based on three factorial survey studies that consist of fictitious full-time employees with varying characteristics, including gender. doi: 10.1177/1536867X0700700207. WebFeminists argue that this erases the categories of gender altogether but does nothing to antagonize the power dynamics reified by gender. In other words, the existence, sign and size of a just gender wage gap is connected to the status value of this characteristic. The only exception is the gender of the vignette persons, which was not important for students but crucial for the respondents in the two population samples. Wage Gap Discovering the mechanisms behind why people perceive certain income levels to be appropriate or fair for male and female employees sheds light on these processes. Therefore, they also experience gender inequalities in other contexts. Equality in Marriages Conflict Theory Angela Iserhienrhien BIBLIOGRAPHY PARADIGM SHIFT? I 've only covered a few of the issues that it creates, and there are many more. As in the previous model, the effect of the gender dimension is negative, indicating rating behavior preferring male recipients. Berlin: Bundesministerium fr Bildung und Forschung (BMBF). CS conducted the survey and wrote the paper. London, UK: Sage Publications. This procedure ensures that potential method effects such as learning and fatigue (Sauer et al., 2011) are uncorrelated with substantive contents of the vignettes. Early to Late 20th Century Feminist Movements, 33. (2009, 2014). The actual gender pay gap captures the differences in earnings between men and women. The findings indicate that actual inequalities between men and women influence the gender bias in justice evaluations. Jasso and Wegener (1997) specify that the just reward depends on reward-relevant factors x, their weights and their combination. Health Econ. Each respondent rated several vignettes; therefore, the data have a multi-level structure. (1985). Engels suggested that the same owner-worker relationship seen in the labor force could also be seen in the household, with women assuming the role of the proletariat. Since 2002, the sample size has been approximately 1,000 respondents and considered representative of the German resident population 16 years of age and older (Siegel et al., 2009). Intersectionality - Student Specific Content Learning Outcomes, 25. Friedrich Engels, a Germansociologist, studied family structure and gender roles from aMarxistperspective. The population sample 2 is available for registered users at the Socio-economic panel (SOEP) at the German Institute of Economic Research (DIW). The subjective gender bias in evaluations of earnings describes complementary differences in justice evaluations of men and women. To illustrate the differences in evaluations between samples and male and female respondents the transformed b-coefficients estimated in Equation (5) will be presented in Figure 3. The left extreme point (5) was labeled unjustly low, the midpoint (0) was labeled just and the right extreme point (+5) was labeled unjustly high. The midpoint was coded as zero, the left segment as negative numbers, and the right segment as positive numbers. Experimental plans in factorial surveys: random or quota design? Both studies used the same vignettes. 51, 123143. Each vignette provided information on at least the gender, age, education, and occupation of the recipient described, among other dimensions in more complex vignettes, together with gross earnings. It has also been found that career-people of the STEM field with young children face more "work-family" conflict, as the demands of the rigorous STEM field and those of their young children overlap. The problem is described in greater detail in Sauer et al. WebA recent review of research on the gender wage gap notes that womens labor force participation rates in the U.S. have grown more slowly than those in northwestern European countries in recent years, probably as a result of differences in The lowest pay gap in 2009 for full-time employed people was measured in Saxony-Anhalt at 1 percent. Table 5 provides the median earnings and gender pay gaps in 2009 for each state separately. The Gender Wage Gap Endures in the U.S. | Pew Research Center doi: 10.1177/0049124105283121. Nevertheless, many high-positioned, wealthy and powerful men can and are willing to help women in coping and improving this situation. The figure shows the German original version and the English translation by the author. gap doi: 10.1016/j.ssresearch.2018.10.013. In all surveys, the respondents had the opportunity to change their judgments of earlier vignettes when they compared them to later vignettes and had to adjust the ratings. Thus, the direction and size of a just gender pay gap depends on actual inequalities people experience in their daily lives. The respondents were randomly assigned to experimental splits. 84, 339349. It therefore provides a continuation of the research initiated by Jasso and Webster (1997, 1999) with new empirical evidence. Ducharme, J. 26, 132150. DIW Wochenbericht 87, 147152. A just gender pay gap? Stata: Release 12. Gender inequality and bargaining in the The just earnings depend on the levels of characteristics observers perceive as important. One study was conducted with social sciences students, and two used population samples of German inhabitants. Conflict between the two groups caused things like the WomensSuffrageMovement and was responsible forsocial change. Gender According to research, women earn only 76% of what men are paid for doing the same task, Women are generally considered as the weak gender and are supposed to be submissive to their, husbands. These referential structures are general relations between a person's states of characteristics (in this case, male or female) and respective rewards (earnings) that are activated in justice evaluations. The unadjusted gender pay gap is defined as the difference of the average gross earnings of men and women divided by the average gross earnings of men. Edited by Anita Badejo and Marc Georges. Which theoretical perspective best explains your experience with Population sample 2 used a three-stage rating task. Formation of reward expectations in status situations, in Status, Rewards and Influence. Who should get what? They are not looked at the same way nor are people praising them for how successful they will become., Introductory Paragraph University students' perceptions of gender discrimination in the workplace: reality versus fiction. Thus, there exist remarkable differences between federal states with the strongest divide between federal states located in the eastern and western parts of Germany. 83, 13981419. doi: 10.18723/diw_wb:2020-10-3, Alves, W. M., and Rossi, P. H. (1978). Conflict Theory and its implication on education. Identify which perspectives use a macrolevel or a microlevel of analysis. Lohngerechtigkeit und Geschlechterdiskriminierung. Annu. With Mary Wilson and Rikki Novetsky. Moreover, three out of 81 interviewers had a tenure of one year or less and did not appear on one of the two training days. (1972), the vignette dimensions are the characteristics of the recipient, and the gross earnings are the goal object. 65:100473. doi: 10.1016/j.rssm.2020.100473. Rev. Rather, they believe that the educational system reinforces and perpetuates social inequalities that arise from differences in class, gender, race, and ethnicity. This study investigated justice evaluations of earnings for male and female employees and linked them to actual inequalities. doi: 10.1016/j.postcomstud.2013.03.007, Hobler, D., and Pfahl, S. (2019). Received: 21 June 2019; Accepted: 11 March 2020; Published: 07 April 2020. The gap exists as a universal between the genders, and it exists within the vast majority of occupations. As these findings were replicated with two independent surveys, it is likely that these are reliable results. The second model includes the interaction term between the vignette person's gender and the gender pay gap in the federal state. As one can tell the two sides of the matter are whether or not women deserve the pay. Sociol. According to the mixed results of prior studies, university students who experience more gender equality will more likely activate a referential structure that does not produce gender bias, while members of the general population are more likely to experience gender inequalities over their life courses and reproduce them in their evaluations. Under the assumption of biased referential structures, it can be predicted under which structural conditions gender is likely to be a status characteristic and thereby a relevant factor in the justice evaluation process formulated in Equation (3). Influence of Women - Student Specific Content Learning Outcomes, 32. Tables 24 provide information on the correlation structure of the vignette dimensions used for the analyses. In these negotiations it is on the one hand important for employees to formulate claims that yield an appropriate outcome, and on the other hand, supervisors have to evaluate these claims as legitimate. Furthermore, I assume that the status value of gender differs between the population samples and the student sample. Sociol. WebGender wage gap is the difference in earnings between men and women and the difference has been an ongoing problem in the U.S. labor force. It is assumed that the gender gap in just wages found in earlier studies (Jasso and Webster, 1997; Jann, 2008) occurred because gender had a status value, dividing people into status-low and status-high groups. Conflict Theory on Education This study investigates the gender bias in justice evaluations by linking it to the inequality structure in which people are embedded. Gender pay gap in U.S. hasnt changed much in two decades In the student sample and population sample 1, the number of dimensions (5, 8, and 12 dimensions) and the number of vignettes presented (10, 20, or 30 vignettes for each respondent) were varied in a between-subjects design4. Mobil. To test this underlying assumption, longitudinal data would be useful to separate changes in justice attitudes with respect to gender from differences between observers. doi: 10.1086/226706, Jasso, G. (1980). Quick Facts About the Gender Wage Gap - Center for Thus. If there is going to be any real change in society for gender wage, men needs to fight for the women as well and they need to fight for them. On the justice of earnings: a new specification of the justice evaluation function. Although only a share of respondents participate in the labor market, these status differences are shared beliefs in wide parts of society because they have spread throughout the population. The pressure that men feel from their colleagues at work is frustrating because the men want to be on the top and show that they can rule dictate their terms. Empirically, this is the first study that compares student samples and population samples using similar tools to detect gender biases that allow for the testing of differences for the first time. A subsequent experimental study, concerning a promotion to a time-intensive position with an online sample of parents, revealed that women reported lower aspirations for this type of promotion compared to men when the position was characterized as inflexible, but the gap disappeared when the position offered temporal flexibility. Third, the respondents stated the level of injustice on a 100-point scale. Less is sometimes more: consequences of overpayment on job satisfaction and absenteeism. By linking gender bias to structural inequality, it generalizes differences between students and the general population and provides tests for other sub-populations that likely produce more or less gender bias in their judgmentsi.e., employees working in federal states with high or low gender inequality. Therefore, research on this transformation process using survey experiments would be especially useful. StataCorp (2011). Zeitschrift fr Soziologie 38, 350357. The factorial survey approach: an introduction, in Measuring social Judgements: the Factorial Survey Approach, Measuring Social Judgments: The Factorial Survey Approach, eds P. Rossi and S. L. Nock (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage), 1567. - Argument in Support of Social Constructionism, 11. New York, NY: Harcourt, Brace & World. First, the focus is on the effect of the gender of the vignette person on the justice evaluations for each sample. Social order is kept by power and control; those with wealth and power try to hold on to it; mainly by overpowering the poor and powerless. Moreover, in all survey modes, including computer-assisted personal interviews, the respondents self-administered their evaluations of the vignettes. *Correspondence: Carsten Sauer, carsten.sauer@zu.de, View all Second, whereas the main survey is a study of private households, the SOEP-Pretest is a sample of individuals. If women keep advancing and taking away their jobs, then these men feel insecure and men are inclined to penalize these progressing women., Conflict theory sees society as a dynamic unit constantly changing as a result of competing for scarce resources. The justice of earnings in dual-earner households. (2019, April 10). Explain the three major sociological perspectives of functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism. Rev. doi: 10.1016/j.rssm.2011.12.004, Markovsky, B. In a later factorial survey conducted in 1995, using a student sample, they found only a marginal gap favoring women (Jasso and Webster, 1999). On the other hand, the tests between the student sample and population sample 1 (2 = 37.18;p < 0.001) as well as population sample 2 (2 = 49.61;p < 0.001) revealed significant differences.
gender wage gap conflict theory